19571cam a2200793Ka 4500 ocn757401381 OCoLC 20171024103623.0 m o d cr cnu---unuuu 111017s2011 gw a ob 001 0 eng d 9783527636303 (electronic bk.) 3527636307 (electronic bk.) 9783527636280 (electronic bk.) 3527636285 (electronic bk.) 9783527636297 (ePub) 3527636293 (ePub) 9783527636310 (Mobi) 3527636315 (Mobi) 3527410031 9783527410033 AU@ 000047551147 DEBSZ 347955517 DEBSZ 372814980 DEBSZ 430997469 NLGGC 338323414 NZ1 16077594 DEBBG BV043393565 (OCoLC)757401381 (OCoLC)714799132 10.1002/9783527636280 Wiley InterScience http://www3.interscience.wiley.com N$T eng pn N$T DG1 YDXCP DEBSZ CDX E7B OCLCQ EBLCP OCLCQ B24X7 OCLCQ COO NLGGC OCLCQ DEBBG MAIN TK8322 .A38 2011eb TEC 009070 bisacsh 621.472 22 Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells / edited by Daniel Abou-Ras, Thomas Kirchartz, and Uwe Rau. [electronic resource] Weinheim, Germany : Wiley-VCH, ©2011. 1 online resource (xxxvi, 547 pages) : illustrations (some color) text txt rdacontent computer c rdamedia online resource cr rdacarrier Includes bibliographical references and index. Machine generated contents note: pt. one Introduction -- 1. Introduction to Thin-Film Photovoltaics / Uwe Rau -- 1.1. Introduction -- 1.2. The Photovoltaic Principle -- 1.2.1. The Shockley-Queisser Theory -- 1.2.2. From the Ideal Solar Cell to Real Solar Cells -- 1.2.3. Light Absorption and Light Trapping -- 1.2.4. Charge Extraction -- 1.2.5. Nonradiative Recombination -- 1.3. Functional Layers in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- 1.4. Comparison of Various Thin-Film Solar-Cell Types -- 1.4.1. Cu(In, Ga)Se2 -- 1.4.1.1. Basic Properties and Technology -- 1.4.1.2. Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- 1.4.2. CdTe -- 1.4.2.1. Basic Properties and Technology -- 1.4.2.2. Layer-Stacking Sequence and Band Diagram of the Heterostructure -- 1.4.3. Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- 1.4.3.1. Hydrogenated Amorphous Si (a-Si: H) -- 1.4.3.2. Metastability in a-Si: H: The Staebler-Wronski Effect -- 1.4.3.3. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon (& mu;c-Si: H) -- 1.4.3.4. Micromorph Tandem Solar Cells. 1.5. Conclusions -- References -- pt. Two Device Characterization -- 2. Fundamental Electrical Characterization of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Uwe Rau -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Current/Voltage Curves -- 2.2.1. Shape of Current/Voltage Curves and their Description with Equivalent Circuit Models -- 2.2.2. Measurement of Current/Voltage Curves -- 2.2.3. Determination of Ideality Factors and Series Resistances -- 2.2.4. Temperature-Dependent Current/Voltage Measurements -- 2.3. Quantum Efficiency Measurements -- 2.3.1. Definition -- 2.3.2. Measurement Principle and Calibration -- 2.3.3. Quantum Efficiency Measurements of Tandem Solar Cells -- 2.3.4. Differential Spectral Response (DSR) Measurements -- 2.3.5. Interpretation of Quantum Efficiency Measurements in Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells -- References -- 3. Electroluminescence Analysis of Solar Cells and Solar Modules / Uwe Rau -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Basics -- 3.3. Spectrally Resolved Electroluminescence -- 3.4. Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence of c-Si Solar Cells -- 3.5. Electroluminescence Imaging of Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Thin-Film Modules. 3.6. Modeling of Spatially Resolved Electroluminescence -- References -- 4. Capacitance Spectroscopy of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Pawel Zabierowski -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.2. Admittance Basics -- 4.3. Sample Requirements -- 4.4. Instrumentation -- 4.5. Capacitance-Voltage Profiling and the Depletion Approximation -- 4.6. Admittance Response of Deep States -- 4.7. The Influence of Deep States on CV Profiles -- 4.8. DLTS -- 4.8.1. DLTS of Thin-Film PV Devices -- 4.9. Admittance Spectroscopy -- 4.10. Drive Level Capacitance Profiling -- 4.11. Photocapacitance -- 4.12. The Meyer-Neldel Rule -- 4.13. Spatial Inhomogeneities and Interface States -- 4.14. Metastability -- References -- pt. Three Materials Characterization -- 5. Characterizing the Light-Trapping Properties of Textured Surfaces with Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy / Karsten Bittkau -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. How Does a Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscope Work? -- 5.3. Light Scattering in the Wave Picture -- 5.4. The Role of Evanescent Modes for Light Trapping -- 5.5. Analysis of Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy Images by Fast Fourier Transformation. 5.6. How to Extract Far-Field Scattering Properties by Scanning Near-Field Optical Microscopy? -- 5.7. Conclusion -- References -- 6. Spectroscopic Ellipsometry / Robert W. Collins -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Theory -- 6.2.1. Polarized Light -- 6.2.2. Reflection from a Single Interface -- 6.3. Ellipsometry Instrumentation -- 6.3.1. Rotating Analyzer SE for Ex-Situ Applications -- 6.3.2. Rotating Compensator SE for Real-Time Applications -- 6.4. Data Analysis -- 6.4.1. Exact Numerical Inversion -- 6.4.2. Least-Squares Regression -- 6.4.3. Virtual Interface Analysis -- 6.5. RTSE of Thin Film Photovoltaics -- 6.5.1. Thin Si: H -- 6.5.2. CdTe -- 6.5.3. CuInSe2 -- 6.6. Summary and Future -- 6.7. Definition of Variables -- References -- 7. Photoluminescence Analysis of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Levent Gutay -- 7.1. Introduction -- 7.2. Experimental Issues -- 7.2.1. Design of the Optical System -- 7.2.2. Calibration -- 7.2.3. Cryostat -- 7.3. Basic Transitions -- 7.3.1. Excitons -- 7.3.2. Free-Bound Transitions -- 7.3.3. Donor-Acceptor Pair Recombination -- 7.3.4. Potential Fluctuations. 7.3.5. Band-Band Transitions -- 7.4. Case Studies -- 7.4.1. Low-Temperature Photoluminescence Analysis -- 7.4.2. Room-Temperature Measurements: Estimation of Voc from PL Yield -- 7.4.3. Spatially Resolved Photoluminescence: Absorber Inhomogeneities -- References -- 8. Steady-State Photocarrier Crating Method / Rudolf Bruggemann -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Basic Analysis of SSPG and Photocurrent Response -- 8.2.1. Optical Model -- 8.2.2. Semiconductor Equations -- 8.2.3. Diffusion Length: Ritter-Zeldov-Weiser Analysis -- 8.2.3.1. Evaluation Schemes -- 8.2.4. More Detailed Analyses -- 8.2.4.1. Influence of the Dark Conductivity -- 8.2.4.2. Influence of Traps -- 8.2.4.3. Minority-Carrier and Majority-Carrier Mobility-Lifetime Products -- 8.3. Experimental Setup -- 8.4. Data Analysis -- 8.5. Results -- 8.5.1. Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- 8.5.1.1. Temperature and Generation Rate Dependence -- 8.5.1.2. Surface Recombination -- 8.5.1.3. Electric-Field Influence -- 8.5.1.4. Fermi-Level Position -- 8.5.1.5. Defects and Light-Induced Degradation. 8.5.1.6. Thin-Film Characterization and Deposition Methods -- 8.5.2. Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Alloys -- 8.5.3. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- 8.5.4. Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Germanium -- 8.5.5. Other Thin-Film Semiconductors -- 8.6. Density-of-States Determination -- 8.7. Summary -- References -- 9. Time-of-Flight Analysis / Torsten Bronger -- 9.1. Introduction -- 9.2. Fundamentals of TOF Measurements -- 9.2.1. Anomalous Dispersion -- 9.2.2. Basic Electronic Properties of Thin-Film Semiconductors -- 9.3. Experimental Details -- 9.3.1. Accompanying Measurements -- 9.3.1.1. Capacitance -- 9.3.1.2. Collection -- 9.3.1.3. Built-in Field -- 9.3.2. Current Decay -- 9.3.3. Charge Transient -- 9.3.4. Possible Problems -- 9.3.4.1. Dielectric Relaxation -- 9.3.5. Inhomogeneous Field -- 9.4. Analysis of TOF Results -- 9.4.1. Multiple Trapping -- 9.4.1.1. Overview of the Processes -- 9.4.1.2. Energetic Distribution of Carriers -- 9.4.1.3. Time Dependence of Electrical Current -- 9.4.2. Spatial Charge Distribution -- 9.4.2.1. Temperature Dependence. 9.4.3. Density of States -- 9.4.3.1. Widths of Band Tails -- 9.4.3.2. Probing of Deep States -- References -- 10. Electron-Spin Resonance (ESR) in Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon (a-Si: H) / Jan Behrends -- 10.1. Introduction -- 10.2. Basics of ESR -- 10.3. How to Measure ESR -- 10.3.1. ESR Setup and Measurement Procedure -- 10.3.2. Pulse ESR -- 10.3.3. Sample Preparation -- 10.4. The g Tensor and Hyperfine Interaction in Disordered Solids -- 10.4.1. Zeeman Energy and g Tensor -- 10.4.2. Hyperfine Interaction -- 10.4.3. Line-Broadening Mechanisms -- 10.5. Discussion of Selected Results -- 10.5.1. ESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- 10.5.2. LESR on Undoped a-Si: H -- 10.5.3. ESR on Doped a-Si: H -- 10.5.4. Light-Induced Degradation in a-Si: H -- 10.5.4.1. Excess Charge-Carrier Recombination and Weak Si-Si Bond Breaking -- 10.5.4.2. Si-H Bond Dissociation and Hydrogen Collision Model -- 10.5.4.3. Transformation of Existing Nonparamagnetic Charged Dangling-Bond Defects -- 10.6. Alternative ESR Detection -- 10.6.1. History of EDMR -- 10.6.2. EDMR on a-Si: H Solar Cells. 10.7. Concluding Remarks -- References -- 11. Scanning Probe Microscopy on Inorganic Thin Films for Solar Cells / Iris Visoly-Fisher -- 11.1. Introduction -- 11.2. Experimental Background -- 11.2.1. Atomic Force Microscopy -- 11.2.1.1. Contact Mode -- 11.2.1.2. Noncontact Mode -- 11.2.2. Conductive Atomic Force Microscopy -- 11.2.3. Scanning Capacitance Microscopy -- 11.2.4. Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy -- 11.2.5. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy -- 11.2.6. Issues of Sample Preparation -- 11.3. Selected Applications -- 11.3.1. Surface Homogeneity -- 11.3.2. Grain Boundaries -- 11.3.3. Cross-Sectional Studies -- 11.4. Summary -- References -- 12. Electron Microscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Sebastian S. Schmidt -- 12.1. Introduction -- 12.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy -- 12.2.1. Imaging Techniques -- 12.2.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction -- 12.2.3. Energy-Dispersive and Wavelength-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry -- 12.2.4. Electron-Beam-Induced Current Measurements -- 12.2.4.1. Electron-Beam Generation -- 12.2.4.2. Charge-Carrier Collection in a Solar Cell. 12.2.4.3. Experimental Setups -- 12.2.4.4. Critical Issues -- 12.2.5. Cathodoluminescence -- 12.2.5.1. Example: Spectrum Imaging of CdTe Thin Films -- 12.2.6. Scanning Probe and Scanning-Probe Microscopy Integrated Platform -- 12.2.7. Combination of Various Scanning Electron Microscopy Techniques -- 12.3. Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 12.3.1. Imaging Techniques -- 12.3.1.1. Bright-Field and Dark-Field Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- 12.3.1.2. High-Resolution Imaging in the Conventional Mode -- 12.3.1.3. Imaging in the Scanning Mode Using an Annular Dark-Field Detector -- 12.3.2. Electron Diffraction. Note continued: 12.3.2.1. Selected-Area Electron Diffraction in the Conventional Mode -- 12.3.2.2. Convergent-Beam Electron Diffraction in the Scanning Mode -- 12.3.3. Electron Energy-Loss Spectrometry and Energy-Filtered Transmission Electron Microscopy -- 12.3.3.1. Scattering Theory -- 12.3.3.2. Experiment and Setup -- 12.3.3.3. The Energy-Loss Spectrum -- 12.3.3.4. Applications and Comparison with EDX Spectroscopy -- 12.3.4. Off-Axis and In-Line Electron Holography -- 12.4. Sample Preparation Techniques -- 12.4.1. Preparation for Scanning Electron Microscopy -- 12.4.2. Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy -- References -- 13. X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction on Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells / Roland Mainz -- 13.1. Introduction -- 13.2. Diffraction of X-Rays and Neutron by Matter -- 13.3. Neutron Powder Diffraction of Absorber Materials for Thin-Film Solar Cells -- 13.3.1. Example: Investigation of Intrinsic Point Defects in Nonstoichiometric CuInSe2 by Neutron Diffraction. 13.4. Grazing Incidence X-Ray Diffraction (GIXRD) -- 13.5. Energy Dispersive X-Ray Diffraction (EDXRD) -- References -- 14. Raman Spectroscopy on Thin Films for Solar Cells / Alejandro Perez-Rodriguez -- 14.1. Introduction -- 14.2. Fundamentals of Raman Spectroscopy -- 14.3. Vibrational Modes in Crystalline Materials -- 14.4. Experimental Considerations -- 14.4.1. Laser Source -- 14.4.2. Light Collection and Focusing Optics -- 14.4.3. Spectroscopic Module -- 14.5. Characterization of Thin-Film Photovoltaic Materials -- 14.5.1. Identification of Crystalline Structures -- 14.5.2. Evaluation of Film Crystallinity -- 14.5.3. Chemical Analysis of Semiconducting Alloys -- 14.5.4. Nanocrystalline and Amorphous Materials -- 14.5.5. Evaluation of Stress -- 14.6. Conclusions -- References -- 15. Soft X-Ray and Electron Spectroscopy: A Unique "Tool Chest" to Characterize the Chemical and Electronic Properties of Surfaces and Interfaces / Clemens Heske -- 15.1. Introduction -- 15.2. Characterization Techniques -- 15.3. Probing the Chemical Surface Structure: Impact of Wet Chemical Treatments on Thin-Film Solar Cell Absorbers. 15.4. Probing the Electronic Surface and Interface Structure: Band Alignment in Thin-Film Solar Cells -- 15.5. Summary -- References -- 16. Elemental Distribution Profiling of Thin Films for Solar Cells / Raquel Caballero -- 16.1. Introduction -- 16.2. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission (GD-OES) and Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy (GD-MS) -- 16.2.1. Principles -- 16.2.2. Instrumentation -- 16.2.2.1. Plasma Sources -- 16.2.2.2. Plasma Conditions -- 16.2.2.3. Detection of Optical Emission -- 16.2.2.4. Mass Spectroscopy -- 16.2.3. Quantification -- 16.2.3.1. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- 16.2.3.2. Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- 16.2.4. Applications -- 16.2.4.1. Glow Discharge-Optical Emission Spectroscopy -- 16.2.4.2. Glow Discharge-Mass Spectroscopy -- 16.3. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) -- 16.3.1. Principle of the Method -- 16.3.2. Data Analysis -- 16.3.3. Quantification -- 16.3.4. Applications for Solar Cells -- 16.4. Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) -- 16.4.1. Introduction -- 16.4.2. The Auger Process -- 16.4.3. Auger Electron Signals. 16.4.4. Instrumentation -- 16.4.5. Auger Electron Signal Intensities and Quantification -- 16.4.6. Quantification -- 16.4.7. Application -- 16.5. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) -- 16.5.1. Theoretical Principles -- 16.5.2. Instrumentation -- 16.5.3. Application to Thin Film Solar Cells -- 16.6. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Analysis on Fractured Cross Sections -- 16.6.1. Basics on Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry in a Scanning Electron Microscope -- 16.6.2. Spatial Resolutions -- 16.6.3. Applications -- 16.6.3.1. Sample Preparation -- References -- 17. Hydrogen Effusion Experiments / Florian Einsele -- 17.1. Introduction -- 17.2. Experimental Setup -- 17.3. Data Analysis -- 17.3.1. Identification of Rate-Limiting Process -- 17.3.2. Analysis of Diffusing Hydrogen Species from Hydrogen Effusion Measurements -- 17.3.3. Analysis of H2 Surface Desorption -- 17.3.4. Analysis of Diffusion-Limited Effusion -- 17.3.5. Analysis of Effusion Spectra in Terms of Hydrogen Density of States -- 17.3.6. Analysis of Film Microstructure by Effusion of Implanted Rare Gases. 17.4. Discussion of Selected Results -- 17.4.1. Amorphous Silicon and Germanium Films -- 17.4.1.1. Material Density versus Annealing and Hydrogen Content -- 17.4.1.2. Effect of Doping on H Effusion -- 17.4.2. Amorphous Silicon Alloys: Si-C -- 17.4.3. Microcrystalline Silicon -- 17.4.4. Zinc Oxide Films -- 17.5. Comparison with Other Experiments -- 17.6. Concluding Remarks -- References -- pt. Four Materials and Device Modeling -- 18. Ab-Initio Modeling of Defects in Semiconductors / Johan Pohl -- 18.1. Introduction -- 18.2. Density Functional Theory and Methods -- 18.2.1. Basis Sets -- 18.2.2. Functionals for Exchange and Correlation -- 18.2.2.1. Local Approximations -- 18.2.2.2. Functionals Beyond LDA/GGA -- 18.3. Methods Beyond DFT -- 18.4. From Total Energies to Materials' Properties -- 18.5. Ab-initio Characterization of Point Defects -- 18.5.1. Thermodynamics of Point Defects -- 18.5.2. Formation Energies from Ab-Initio Calculations -- 18.5.3. Case study Point Defects in ZnO -- 18.6. Conclusions -- References -- 19. One-Dimensional Electro-Optical Simulations of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Thomas Kirchartz. 19.1. Introduction -- 19.2. Fundamentals -- 19.3. Modeling Hydrogenated Amorphous and Microcrystalline Silicon -- 19.3.1. Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon -- 19.3.2. Density of States and Transport Hydrogenated Microcrystalline Silicon -- 19.3.3. Modeling Recombination in a-Si: H and & mu;c-Si: H -- 19.3.3.1. Recombination Statistics for Single-Electron States: Shockley-Read-Hall Recombination -- 19.3.3.2. Recombination Statistics for Amphoteric States -- 19.3.4. Modeling Cu(In, Ga)Se2 Solar Cells -- 19.3.4.1. Graded Band-Gap Devices -- 19.3.4.2. Issues when Modeling Graded Band-Gap Devices -- 19.3.4.3. Example -- 19.3.5. Modeling of CdTe Solar Cells -- 19.3.5.1. Baseline -- 19.3.5.2. The & Phi;b -- NAc (Barrier-Doping) Trade-Off -- 19.3.5.3. C-V Analysis as an Interpretation Aid of I-V Curves -- 19.4. Optical Modeling of Thin Solar Cells -- 19.4.1. Coherent Modeling of Flat Interfaces -- 19.4.2. Modeling of Rough Interfaces -- 19.5. Tools -- 19.5.1. AFORS-HET -- 19.5.2. AMPS-1D -- 19.5.3. ASA -- 19.5.4. PC1D -- 19.5.5. SCAPS. 19.5.6. SC-SIMUL -- References -- 20. Two- and Three-Dimensional Electronic Modeling of Thin-Film Solar Cells / Wyatt K. Metzger -- 20.1. Introduction -- 20.2. Applications -- 20.3. Methods -- 20.3.1. Equivalent-Circuit Modeling -- 20.3.2. Solving Semiconductor Equations -- 20.4.2.1. Creating a Semiconductor Model -- 20.4. Examples -- 20.4.1. Equivalent-Circuit Modeling Examples -- 20.4.2. Semiconductor Modeling Examples -- 20.5. Summary -- References. Print version record. Photovoltaic cells Materials Research. TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING Mechanical. bisacsh Electronic books. Rau, U. (Uwe) edt Abou-Ras, Daniel. edt Kirchartz, Thomas. edt Print version: Advanced characterization techniques for thin film solar cells. Weinheim, Germany : Wiley-VCH, ©2011 3527410031 (OCoLC)676728907 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/book/10.1002/9783527636280 Wiley Online Library ddc BK 205293 205293